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informaworld: articles recently published in The Service Industries Journal
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German report 1999 R é s e a u E u r o p
é e n S e r v i c e s &
E s p a c e
SERVICES & INTERNATIONALISATION - Christof ELLGER and Eberhard VON EINEM. 1 -
Availability of data on services in Germany.
1
- Availability of data on services in Germany
Lack of data is a persisting
complaint of researchers on services in Germany. The establishing of a
services statistics (by federal law) has failed once again in 1997
(Kaiser). Official data from employment statistics (on the basis of
plants), 1% sample microcensus (on the basis of households), tax
statistics (on the basis of enterprises) and cost input statistics are
all
1) at least partly incomplete, 2) not compatible in their definition and structuring of services and 3) appear with a time-lag of up to several years (Kaiser). That's why special surveys are important. To assess trends in producer services growth, the Centre for European Economic Research ZEW, Mannheim holds a quarterly panel survey on producer service firms, interviewing ca. 4000 firms about their economic situation, recent changes as well as their perspectives for the near future. In 1998, Germany's producer services experienced a year of slight slow-down of the stunning growth rates of the years before (Kaiser). It becomes evident that producer services' growth depends very much on growth in the whole of the economy. Since this is slack in East Germany, producer services there have been rather dissatisfied with their situation. In general, computer services and consultancy fare better than technical services and waste management. In addition to the panel survey, the ZEW has recently developed a business cycle indicator, called service sentiment indicator", based on figures for value added in producer services and on the results of the panel (Kaiser). 2
- The service gap hypothesis
There is in 1998, as it was the
case in the years before, the preoccupation with the „service gap"
hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that Germany is lagging behind in the
evolution of a „service society" and that the country is - together
with Japan, and to a lesser extent also Italy - comparatively
over-industrialized. In research on this question, analysts usually
compare employment data for the US and other countries with those for
Germany. In a new paper, published in 1998, Haisken-De New et al. of
the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW), who have been
supporting the non-gap hypothesis in recent years, argue that because
of Germany's service performance there has been a catching up effect,
thus narrowing the service gap in the period 1990-96. In 1997, however,
the gap has widened again.
The non-gap hypothesis has been strongly criticized by a number of scholars. The criticism is mainly directed towards the DIW's limited methodological approach, holding that it is insufficient to compare the two countries solely on the basis of occupational employment shares. Instead, the two countries' very different labour participation rates should be taken into consideration. With Germany's employment rate being significantly lower than that of the US economy, the resulting patterns of sectoral and occupational shifts must be seen in a different perspective (Baethge/Glott/Wilkens; Cornetz/Schäfer; Grömlich/Lichtblau/Weber). In the light of this research the German economy suffers primarily from an employment gap that must be interpreted as an underproportional dynamism in the service sector. A new study by Cornetz and Schäfer, improving the data processing of the preceeding investigations, confirms that there is in fact a service gap in Germany. A careful comparison of occupational data from CPS (current population survey) in the US and the socio-economic panel (SOEP) in Germany reveals that in the US in the mid-1990's, over 80% of the workforce are in service jobs, whereas the quota for Germany is around 75%. Taking labour participation rates into consideration, the gap widens enormously. There are 310 service jobs per 1000 inhabitants in Germany as compared to 418 service jobs (per 1000 inhabitants) in the US (Cornetz/Schäfer). There is, however, an effect of „catching up" in Germany, as the service occupation proportion is increasing more strongly in time than in the US. Concerning the type of service occupations with the most striking quantitative differences between the two countries, the results are highly interesting: It is not disputed that the range of wage distribution is wider in the US than in most European countries including Germany. However, contrary to a widely shared assumption, it is not low paid "Mac-jobs" which account for the markedly different employment share in services, but the far higher proportion of (mostly well paid) producer services, requiring skilled personnel, that make up for most of the difference in the employment structure of the US: 183 in the US versus 100 in Germany respectively work in producer services per 1000 inhabitants. In particular, Cornetz and Schäfer hold that there is a lower share of managers in Germany and not so much of engineers, scientists or other business (service) occupations. How can the discrepancies be explained? Could it not be the case that either in the US a lot more occupations on lower levels in the industrial hierarchy are classified as "managerial" than in Germany, or that the German (and European) economy on the whole can do with a smaller share of managerial occupations, being more efficient in that respect . By pointing to diverging classification schemes used by the census bureaus on both sides of the Atlantic, Grömlich, Lichtblau and Weber stress this point in their publication. In general, the approaches in occupation structure comparisons of the kind presented here are very heavy on the empirical side and lack theoretical considerations (like those proposed here). Regarding value added figures, the contribution of the service sector to total value added in the German economy is around 40%, whereas it is about 65% in the US. This, however, is explained by the comparatively smaller importance of outsourcing of service functions from manufacturing enterprises (Beyer/Hilbert/Micheel 3) in Germany. 3
- Services in East Germany and Eastern European countries
East Germany is still
characterized by a fundamentally different economic and occupational
structure: comparatively less business services and other highly
productive producer services, including finance and insurance,
distinctly less headquarter functions, comparatively more consumer
services and blue-collar producer services (cleaning, protection and
guard services etc.), generally with less productivity than in the
Western parts (Rechmann). Lagging tertiarisation in Eastern former
socialist countries is generally a topic for discussion in Germany
(Gramatzki).
4
- Internationalisation of services
Internationalization is a major
topic for German researchers, especially looking at business services;
the literature, however, is dominated by business research and studies
in international law (Ebke).
Problems with the low profile of Germany as a service-exporting country are discussed in Blum's paper for the Ministry of Economic Affairs' conference. Germany's trade balance in services, however, is pretty much balanced out, apart from the substantial net imports of tourism services by German tourists abroad. In addition, there is a (partly small) negative balance in capital returns and gains from patents sales. It is assumed, however, that service export could be much more substantial, but high wage levels as well as specific features of the tax system as well as language problems (English as the new lingua franca) stand against it. Von Einem and Gornig hold in their study on internationalization of business services (consultancy, engineering, software) that Germany has been extremely successful in exporting services in combination with goods, but has been comparatively unsuccessful with selling free standing professional services abroad. One reason behind this is that, in terms of professional codes, Germany's business services have for decades been confined to regional markets and started to internationalize very late, as late as the 1990's. With its predominantly small and medium-sized professional service firms, the German market has for a long time been dominated by foreign business service companies, either through setting up subsidiaries but also through buying into German service firms. In the competition with foreign firms, German business services need both more capital and more knowledge and competence to increase their exports. With Germany's universities losing ground, the eroding educational basis for for professional services does not support exports in a sufficient way. Kaulisch and Tiemann point out that Germany is also lagging behind in advertising, accountancy and computer services. Behofsics also analyzes internationalization of business services (computer services, consultancy, accounting, advertising, technical services), plunging deeply though the business and economics literature in search of theory approaches, assessing the growing importance of international services and business services output (through international trade statistics) and comparing selected Swiss, US-American and Austrian business services in their internationalization behaviour. Internationalization starts with export of services (in Switzerland and Austria a pre-condition for further steps), rather quickly followed by foreign direct investment. Other forms of foreign engagement are present, too, like licencing or franchising. In general, the extent of FDI is proportional to firm size, but in Austria small firms, too, have expanded considerably abroad (through their engagement in Eastern European reform countries). The fundamental factor behind FDI is the importance of proximity to clients, and follow-the-client behaviour is wide-spread. Target countries are predominantly found in the developed world, and locations are sought - very conservatively - in inner cities of large conurbations. Networks, on various scales (lokal, regional, interregional, global), can be discovered frequently. It seems, however, that every branch (and even every firm) has its specific history of internationalization - differences between software supplier and consultant in the case studies are evident.
5
- Manufacturing and services
Much more important than the
dualistic concept of manufacturing and services is one of
complementarity and mutual influence: services in, for and with
manufacturing on the one hand and the industrialization of services on
the other hand. Very important now and in the future are goods-service
combinations: service-accompanied investment and consumer goods
(so-called „systems") and (technological) goods-supported services, for
instance in media and software products which can be viewed as
materialized services (Beyer/Hilbert/Micheel 3 and also emphasized by
Kalmbach). In addition, the knowledge content of manufactured goods is
also considered as (strongly) increasing, though this is intrinsically
difficult or even impossible to measure (Kalmbach). In general, the
idea of a 'fusion' of services and material goods to
goods-services-offers as the main path of service evolution and as a
major process of socio-economic change is certainly one of the dominant
notions of the services discussion in Germany at present. It also comes
up in Giarini/Liedtke (see below).
Not surprisingly in a potentially 'over-industrialized' national economy, in many of the German studies covered, services are approached from the manufacturing side: „industrial services", i.e. services offered together with manufactured products by their producers in „compact packages", „systems", „solutions", has become a keyword in the recent literature. J. Link investigates technical services as a subclass of industrial services, accompanying manufactured goods to/at the consumer in mechanical engineering companies. Interviews with German engineering manufacturing companies and a case study (with Siemens) reveal that by now more than half of the production value of a technical system is contributed by service activities (like design, planning, project management, installation, initialization), and the proportion is increasing. Outsourcing of such services is rare and assumed to remain rare. Schomaker presents strategy and experiences of one specific company, producing components for special cranes, where the service content is becoming more and more important; he also, however, points to the danger of underestimating the cost side as well as risks connected to quality deficiencies of the service component. Sachs and also Schomaker approach links between manufacturing and services from the service side (financial services for the motorcar industry; testing as a service for manufacturers), Kreutner and Specht present the strategic service-manufacturing network of the two companies which they work for (Trumpf, a sheet metal forming machines manufacturer and Hewlett-Packard Germany, provider of IT products and services provider). Berger et al. present „teleservice" as a now unexpensive means to service and control exported installations and machinery via the internet, given PC and internet as potential interface and telecommunication medium, enabling the servicer to connect himself directly with the machinery and work on it from a distance. 6
- Outsourcing of services
Also in the field of outsourcing
of services, Germany is assumed to lag behind. In this context, Zahn et
al. investigate outsourcing behaviour of firms in a regional economy
which is still distinctly dominated by manufacturing and where
outsourcing is only just beginning: the Stuttgart region. One
interesting contribution in their study is the grading of services to
be outsourced or not according to their proximity to the core
activities of the manufacturing company: first grade services are part
of the value creation chain, second grade services support the
manufacturing value creation, and third grade services help the general
infrastructure of the enterprise. These grades basically correlate with
knowledge intensity [and perhaps also to the established elite versus
routine differentiation]: Highly knowledge-intensive services, like
R&D, data processing, legal advice [?] are first grade services,
less knowledge-intensive services like market research or estate
management are classified as second grade services, storing,
maintenance and other supply services are considered to be third grade
services. Classic motives for outsouring are discussed (cost reduction,
strategic advantages, Both advantages and risks of outsourcing
behaviour are assessed and listed for various stages of an outsourcing
process. Various options of „internal outsourcing" (into joint ventures
with service provider etc.) are presented. The empirical study shows
highest outsourcing importance for both first grade (knowledge supply!)
and third grade services (routine services, material services).
Concentration on core activities, flexible capacities, time advantages
are most important motives, cost reduction and quality improvement are
less important motives. Dependence on service supplier, loss of
influence and coordination problems are named as the dominant risks.
However, the advantages seem to outweigh the risks by far - outsourcing
is a major topic for enterprises in the region, but can be encouraged
from both sides as well as by public policy.
7
- Innovation and knowledge in services
Research in services is still to
a great extent dominated by „industrial thinking". This becomes evident
in studies on „innovation in services" (documented by Preissl). Here a
distinction between process and product innovation is attempted which
seems inadequate for services, where the product is most commonly an
interaction process between supplier and user; and too much emphasis
lies on technology. In addition, the notion of „innovation" is very
vague indeed in services and should perhaps be linked closer to either
efficiency on the producer's side (use of IT; reorganisation;
outsourcing) or quality improvement on the user's side. However,
interviewees could apparently well distinguish between process and
product innovation, process innovations encompassing organisational
improvements or rearrangements on the producer's side. The „innovation"
studies, nevertheless, produce some interesting results on general
changes in services. One important present-day „innovation" is
expansion of markets in the context of internationalisation. Another
facet is the role of technology which may convert services into
self-services (automation), may demand new services to operate and to
sell and diffuse new technologies (e.g. computer services).
Perhaps it would suffice to speak about „changes" and „challenges" in services and restrict the notion of „innovation" to truly new services (which are, in fact, rare). In business studies as well as in economic geography (Lo/Rentmeister; Berg et al.) in Germany, knowledge as a prime factor of production together with networking and other forms of knowledge-oriented interaction has definitely become a major theme, looking at the sheer number of publications, especially in business journals and books (e.g. Pfiffner/Stadelmann; Ritter; Krebs). As a matter of fact, a new paradigm in business studies, business teaching as well as business consultancy has emerged, connected with the transition from the „industrial enterprise" to the „knowledge enterprise" (Servatius; Schönherr; ). Value is created not through physical transformations but through intellectual processes. The prototype of such an enterprise, nevertheless, is the business service, the consultant or software specialist etc.. In these enterprises socio-psychological approaches are gaining importance; individual and collective creativity as well „organisational learning" are the keywords; the distinction between codified and implicit/tacit knowledge is at the root of the theory. There is a lot of discussion about the information technology infrastructure of knowledge firms, intranets and extranets etc., but it is now generally accepted that interpersonal, „informal", „face-to-face" aspects of the communication, stimulation and production of new knowledge are perhaps more important, so commentators and consultants turn to „open learning culture" and „leadership" (Schuller) as arenas of necessary change. Nevertheless, the role of business/knowledge/information services in knowledge communication, is rarely treated. The link to spatial aspects of knowledge questions, starting from a tradition in the geography of education but reaching far into recent knowledge approaches, is provided by Meusburger's book. On the other hand, in connection with knowledge dominating as a factor of production, the „innovative milieu" approach and regional networking is still very much on the agenda (Rösch; Maillat). 8
- Subsectoral business services research
Concerning specific studies on
business services, consultancy has now been discovered as a major field
of research in business studies (Bamberger ed.; Hummel/Zander; Matschke
ed.; Sperling/Ittermann), given the boom in turnover and employment in
this sector, although there is criticism that the academic branch is
not yet paying as much attention to consulting work as it should
(Fritz/Effenberger). Sperling and Ittermann's book is a first extensive
study on the structures, actors and interests in the sector from a
general social science approach, emphasizing also the motives behind
the heavy reliance on consultants: to buy knowledge and information, to
implement decisions and to delegate responsibility, to initiate
processes of learning and change.
Treina's thesis on the performance of business services in the Swiss „Espace Mittelland" (the wider region around Berne, not one of the top economic regions in the country) attempts to combine various approaches of regional analysis (from Porter to GREMI) in order to assess the performance of the business service sector in the region and its contribution to regional growth. In a rather descriptive process, competencies, size of business and markets, factor endowment, demand situation, suppliers, strategies and competition as well as the (spatial) cooperation culture in various business service branches are presented and used for an evaluation of the significance of the branch. Retail banking and specific (mostly technical and administrational) consultancy branches prove to be of special interest. The book also includes a brief piece of interview research of the demand side of business services (Lüthi) revealing perceived strengths and weaknesses of business services in the region. 9
- Productivity and quality in services
The growing 'blurring' of goods
and services also affects another 'old' question of service research,
the one on productivity and productivity increase in services as
compared to other economic sectors, which is dealt with by Kalmbach: It
makes an analysis more and more difficult. Kalmbach, however, analysis
productivity growth in various service subsectors in Germany from 1960
to 1996 and finds that productivity increase in trade and transport is
in fact higher than in manufacturing, whereas in other services it is
lower (it is in fact by far highest in agriculture!). 'Storing' of
services, mainly again in media products, has made specific service
subsectors enormously productive in recent years. And: productivity
growth in services does not necessarily mean less employment, if e.g.
price reductions and the opening of new markets occur at the same time.
In addition, Kalmbach continues, any concept of the economy which
regards services as being dependent on manufacturing is no longer
adequate: There can be no doubt that regions can specialize in services
and found their economies on services.
But is productivity in services really the question? D'Allessio and Oberbeck maintain that the technology-led discussion on service productivity misses the point. Much more important is the quality of the producer-client interaction. This is also the background to the so-called „organisation gap" or „cultural gap" between the potentialities of new (information and communation) technology and its application in services. It is by no means certain that information technology will rationalize all kinds of services. The standardization potential of service interaction is limited - almost by definition. Instead, loyalty to clients, reliability etc. are the decisive factors for services (which, as a matter of fact, takes us back into the network discussion of RESER's early conferences); these ideas are mostly taken from Reichheld's publications in the US. But with „consumer satisfaction" as a frequently quoted keyword in the services management literature, it seems that at least the academic commentators have arrived at such a notion of services. But how can one measure „service quality"? D'Allessio and Oberbeck discuss this using the example of insurance agents, where a general downgrading of the profession can be assessed. 10
- Service policy
The long-lasting discussion about
„Germany - the service desert" seems to have calmed down or been
replaced by analyses of clients satisfation with services, but problems
persist, especially with respect to the consumers' perception of some
of the large service monopolists (Deutsche Telecom, post office).
Bräuninger of Deutsche Bank Research argues from the businesses' point of view and calls for a service jobs initiative in Germany, which should include more deregulation, more privatization (in transport, energy etc. - a process which is actually well under steam in Germany at present) including the creation of a segment of low-wage jobs in low-qualification service jobs, possibly partly subsidized by the state (paying for a „combination wage" out of private sector and public payment instead of paying unemployment benefit). Bräuninger lists a number of deficits in service orientation concerning the state (over-regulation, exaggerated state influence in services), the unions (lack of „service mentality", inflexibility) as well as the business world (lack of services marketing). Beyer, Hilbert and Brigitte Micheel (2) also criticize the superficial treatment of political strategies to foster services and call for a services policy in Germany which ought to be developed similarly to industrial policy and which should above all help to overcome the innovation inertia in different service branches in the country, essentially by enhancing the circulation of information on growth potentials in services. Using insurance services as an example, they show that there is a potential for innovations; rationalization in the branch must be counteracted by more employment in consumer guidance and help in more complicated and individualized business environments. 11
- Working conditions in services
Glott looks at the supply side of
services, at working conditions in services in Germany, again using
data from the socio-economic panel. Even if the source is anything but
excessively reliable, some tendencies can be put forward: Once again it
is ascertained that major differences do not exist between services and
manufacturing occupations but rather between services occupations, in
terms of payment, working hours, quality of work etc. - the generally
strong discrimination of women persists, in whatever branch or sector.
The situation of elite employees, knowledge workers, in near-production service functions, like research, conceptual design, organisation, planning and controlling), is analyzed in an interesting sociological study by Moldaschl. How is this changing, amidst the waves of new organisational concepts like objectorientated segmentation, inter-functional teams, simultaneous engineering or project orientation, knowledge flow and creativity management etc.? One focal aspect is the increasing internal marketisation of organisation (through profit centres, internal competition etc.). Tendencies are: Security is decreasing, autonomy is increasing, together with qualification demands, responsibility and also general work load. Other - factual - constraints are also increasing, serving as a kind of „taming tools" for employees or project groups. 12
- Social and personal services
In the field of social/personal
services, personal care services for permanent care patients are
gaining more and more attention, after the introduction of
home/hospital care as the fifth column into the compulsory social
security scheme in Germany (beside pensions, health, unemployment and
accidents) in 1995. Looking at the demographic change in Germany, this
is certainly a growth sector. A new mix of public, semi-public and
private care institutions has emerged, use of technology is increasing,
but the big growth in jobs has not set in, rather a redistribution has
occurred. Care arrangements in the families are being encouraged, but
more in order to limit social security expenses than to strengthen
consumer souvereignty and consumer influence on service quality
(Jaufmann).
With regard to service provision in rural areas and generally in spatial policy, there has been a continuing reviving of central-place approaches (Stiens/Pick; Kuntzer). On the other hand, empirical studies on service provision, especially retailing, reveal that the traditional assumption of fundamental disadvantages in supply in rural areas cannot be suppon the branch must be counteracted by more employment in consumer guidance and help in more complicated and individualized business environments. 13
- Information and communication services
Another new field of analysis as
well as public economic policy is the wide area of information and
communication (products and) services associated with information and
communication technology, called „Multimedia" in German - a large area,
difficult to define and vague at its boundaries, including software,
(hardware?), computer services, internet services, internet providers,
network providers, telecommunication companies, the media - engaged in
'telematics' or not - and also reaching into advertising, design and
the arts etc. Especially since regional economic policy has discovered
this field as a generally fashionable one and also one with
considerable growth potential and positive employment effects in urban
areas, several research projects have turned to analyzing this sector
within the context of urban areas. Belzer/Michel try to assess the role
of the multimedia sector in the Düsseldorf conurbation, important
capital of Northrhine-Westphalia, headquarter and media location. An
estimated 6 to 8 percent of the workforce (or 35000) in the conurbation
is employed in multimedia firms. The historic evolution of individual
firms (diversifying into information technology and services),
proximity to clients, again, availability of staff and the generally
excellent accessibility conditions in the area are mentioned as prime
factors for the multimedia agglomeration. Institutions of higher
education have proved to be unimportant. Networking is not a
predominant phenomenon, firms tend to work together in projects, but
not necessarily on a longer-term basis.
In addition, there are, again, contributions to the growing body of literature concerning new information and communication technology and its economic and societal consequences, now focusing essentially on the internet (Rötzer; Hinner), also investigating spatial aspects, i.e. the consequences for urban and regional change. The former discussion about centralisation versus decentralisation and dis-urbanisation has now been succeeded by a more complex description of the developments in the technology and its applications and by a discussion of outcomes and necessary reaction concerning specific fields of applications (communes and electronic communication, as a service for citizens as well as a means of marketing in several directions; the limited 'success' of tele-work; tele-shopping, tele-banking and the fate of urban areas).
14
- Final remarks
One major publication in the
services context of 1998 in Germany, which has also contributed to the
services discussion, has been the German edition of Giarini and
Liedtke's The employment dilemma and the future of work, report to the
Club of Rome. The report is some kind of an „all-inclusive" analysis of
the (national as well as global) employment problem alongside with a
consideration of the importance of services, societal needs,
international trade, the third world, the ecology and a philosophical
approach to work, reworking also discussions on guaranteed income,
inverse income tax as well as women's role in the employment system.
Rather fundamental in its approach, the report points once again to the
existing mismatch between an abundance of material and human ressources
on the one hand and the lack of welfare and employment on the other
hand, analysing this mismatch from an essentially „service-informed"
point of view. The report underlines the prime importance of services
in today's economy (in interaction with the use of manufactured goods),
setting up three categories of services, according to their degree of
monetarization and formalization: formally paid; monetarized but not
paid (work in households, honorary work); not monetarized work:
self-service work). The solution to the employment problem suggested by
Giarini and Liedtke relies partly on established formal employment
(essentially in service jobs), partly on guaranteed employment by the
state, i.e. service jobs with payments guaranteed by the state (similar
to existing job creation systems) and partly on unpaid
(honorary/social) work. The way in which services are treated in the
book, i.e. as the major category of work in late 20th century, together
with the features of the services listed in the text (e.g. quality
aspects are essential, productivity as a less important category for
services etc.; misleading notion of „immateriality" in services as in
„services are things which you cannot drop"; including different types
of services including self-servicing à la Gershuny; encompassing
also informal work), makes it a valuable contribution to the „services
discussion".
A comparably very general, highly philosophical approach with many similarities to Giarini/Liedtke is Loettel's little book. Loettel, scientist, engineer and a protestant priest, analyses the current crisis of the world system as one similar to the eve of the neolithical or industrial revolution, i.e. in a very long historical context, and announces the „service society" and the „service revolution" as a new era of mankind and as the loophole out of the dominant problems of unemployment, under-employment on the one hand and over-production/waste production on the other hand. The prevailing material-intensive economy is to be replaced by a material-saving economy, relying strongly on services (repair, rearrangement, recycling of material; lending instead of selling etc.). The idea, however, has already been better formulated in publications of the Wuppertal Institute e.g. and the author himself mentions Giarini and Liedtke as an important source; Loettel remains rather vague with respect to the organisation of the division of labour in his new „service society". To finish with, here is an interim answer to the question: Should we stick to the notion of 'Service economy and service society' - and continue to work on services? - Yes! - Why? - Because even with an increasing interpenetration the most striking feature of services, the interaction of provider and client, is a dominant facet of the evolving economic organisation. (Krämer, however, leading expert of Debis DaimlerChrysler InterServices AG, would prefer „network society"). And there is an idea from Giarini and Liedtke: Material goods and services have always come together - to serve a client, but the difference between the (former) industrial and (today's) service society lies very much in the fact that in the former the decisive (cost) factor (bottleneck factor) was the material costs and in the latter it is the service costs whereas the material costs are becoming more and more negligible. 15
- References
Wednesday April 21, 2004
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