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Spanish report 2000R é s e a u E u r o p é e n S e r v i c e s & E s p a c e
1 - New
analysing approaches to leisure, culture and services
1. New analysing approaches to leisure, culture and services Given the number of transformations undergone by the economy of production over the last twenty years, all studies agree that the industrial sector has experienced a lesser role than the services sector. Indeed, the Spanish economy is nowadays increasingly tertiary: not only does the services sector account for approximately two thirds of total employment and almost 60% of national production, but it is leading the recent Spanish boom_. In this vein, services aimed at production (mainly corporate ones) are undeniably growing in importance as a highly innovating sector. This sector is complementary to the industry and shows a pro-cyclical trend toward an overall economic development. Apart from these services, there are other services aimed at final consumption ñ especially tourism, recreation services and leisure activities ñ which play a crucial role. It is interesting to note that these changes are producing territorial implications. Thus, over the last decades, the new emergence of major centres linked to the development of the services sector has led to a decline in the traditionally industrial areas. This can also well illustrate the case of the Spanish economy where the Autonomous Regions in the Mediterranean Arch and the Canary and Balearic Islands have grown stronger as developmental axes for the whole country. In particular, and due to its locational advantages, they have taken part in a process closely linked to the dynamism of the services and, especially, of the tourism sector. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that all activities concerning leisure, recreation and culture are now gaining prominence in modern economies. As evidence to support this, we can quote a recent study carried out at the Autonomous University of Madrid (GarcÌa Gracia et al. 1997 & 2000) where the contribution of the Spanish Cultural and Recreational Industry ÑIndustria de la Cultura y el Ocio en EspaÒaì to the GDP is estimated by means of tax variables. The figures provided in it are very significant, insofar as the contribution of this sector to the GDP rose from 3.1 % in 1992_ to 4.5% in 1997. Moreover, the Gross Added Value is mainly generated by the private sector, in contrast with the public one, which only yields 8% of the total value. This supports the view that maintains that culture and leisure should be market-driven activities instead of public and non-marketable ones. Likewise, the figure of new jobs in this sector, which makes up 7.8% of the national amount went up by a handsome 34.8 % between 1982 and 1997. This figure is well above that of those employees in the overall economy who made up 6.9% of the total amount for the same period. These figures illustrate the size and dynamism of the culture and leisure sector. There seem to be, nonetheless, grounds to suggest a somewhat underestimate of this productive branch. The set of arguments to prove this hypothesis goes as follows: First, the culture and leisure
sector spreads all over the productive system giving rise to very important
consequences, both forward and backward. This is why three basic types of activities_
are usually considered :
Second, and linked to the first argument, there is a lack of an explicit definition for the cultural sector itself in the available sources on economic variables; on most occasions, definitions are scattered or mixed up in training and research activities, as well as in, often, leisure and tourist functions. The reason why an official definition is non-existent appears to be consistent with the insufficient consolidation of the economic studies on the significance of consumption and cultural production. This is also why so many definitions ad hoc, adapted from the sources of information used, are generally resorted. Hence, they usually appear together in the same section as activities related to leisure and culture, thus making it impossible to study them separately. 1. Third, it is also worth
noting in analysing the underestimate of the culture and leisure sector a recent
social behaviour, commonly known as Ñcocooning effectì. It accounts
for that kind of domestic activities not taken into account when estimating
the production of a country, so that if the income goes up, so does the demand
for leisure. Still, that increase is not satisfied with the consumption of services,
but with that of domestic goods_. As, for example, with the sales of CDs and
videos, which are, eventually, becoming substitute goods for the consumption
of opera, concerts or cinema. In view of this, we can conclude that the traditional
links between cultural consumption and the public provision of goods and services
have disappeared. It is, therefore, necessary to draw attention to a more and
more important new sector: the private industry of cultural goods.
In any case, despite these statistical and definitional deficiencies, the culture and leisure sector turns out to be a productive branch on the increase. This is due to the fact that the goods related to it are characterised by a high income elasticity and, therefore, its demand goes up as its per capital income grows. Indeed, this can be proved if we analyse the regional distribution of the family expenditure on recreation and culture_. In that analysis, it can be seen that those regions with a higher per capita income (CataluÒa, Madrid, PaÌs Vasco) and, at the same time, with a greater tourist attraction (the Canary and Balearic Islands) spend more on this type of services. We can similarly assume that the substantial increase in the contribution of the culture and leisure sector to the GDP has also favoured the Spanish economic growth over the last years. There is, nevertheless, another more sociologically-rooted reason that explains the current increase in the leisure and culture expenditure. This refers to new cultural behaviours in our contemporary society. Culture, indeed, has gone from being a rare leisure to be a new must for many citizens, from being a good for distraction to be a routine consumption and, from being minority and elitist to be mass-consumed. This can be understood in the light of the specific nature of the known as ÑLeisure Civilisationì (ÑCivilizaciÛn del Ocioì). Its basics lies not in the fact that citizens now live in an affluent society where it is easy to rest and needless to work, but in the fact that leisure has now become crucial in the citizens¥ hierarchy of values and work is considered to be a necessary servitude and toll. It must also be noted, in this sense, that leisure has gone from being characteristic of a extreme segment of the population (childhood and old age) to be a must for adults who have changed the typical values of production and diligence of the XIX-century industrial society for a prevailing hedonist ethics in our contemporary culture (RuÌz 1996; Harvey 1989). Seen in this light, the creation of new jobs in the leisure sector seems to be understandable. These include the boom in sports, the growth of tourism, the consumption of culture and, even, some societal diseases, like drug addition. What is, nonetheless, truly important of these social behaviours is that they are economically significant, insofar as the decisions taken with regard to people¥s enjoyment of their spare time respond to individual preferences and hence, the different uses of leisure become a marketable good and get into economic estimates. In short, recreation has been privatised and in its transformation into a good it takes part in the system of economic societal flows_. Concerning the main aim of this review article ñculture and servicesñ we have to admit that one of the manifestations of leisure: tourism, has become a very important hallmark in our contemporary society; and especially the cultural tourism, which has become one of the most relevant components in that sector_. This, nonetheless, would not only be a part of the overall profitability generated by the cultural sector, but it would also be necessary to add up the contribution of the general cultural industry, i.e. reading-writing (press, leading articles), image and sound (TV, radio, cinema, registered music, books); performing arts (shows, theatre, concerts); as well as activities which are cultural in an accumulated sense, such as, the cultural heritage, restoration activities, the market of arts, exhibitions, etc. On the other hand, it can also be pointed out that the economic analysis, of both the cultural consumption and the production of culture-related goods and services, as well as of the provision and public attention to them, implies a certain analytical specificity given the characteristic nature of the majority of these cultural goods. They are not only commercially important, but also subjective elements of people¥s identity and behaviour. This is the reason why a new discipline, the Economics of Culture is consolidating. We will now look at its analytical foundations in the following section. 2. Anatilycal foundations of the economics of culture Given the fact that economics well attempts to explain human behaviours, it is scientifically agreed that microeconomics can account for some of these behaviours, i.e. the consumption and production of culture. The Economics of Culture is, thus, consolidating as a fertile field for the theoretical reasoning and empirical testing on human and institutional behaviour towards present and accumulated_ culture. Indeed, economists have only recently paid attention to these issues. Yet, classical authors, like Adam Smith, already argued that professions, such as, musicians, painters, dancers, jesters and comedians did not contribute to the country¥s wealth and were classified as non-productive jobs (Smith 1776, II Book, Chapter III, page 99). Nowadays, the Economics of Culture, as a scientific field, is, nonetheless, receiving a growing institutional and academic acknowledgement in the light of three main factors_: Culture and cultural activities constitute a key source for producing economic flows, income and employment, as already proved in the previous section. Culture is a field par excellence for government intervention, not only because of the public nature of a great deal of its products; but also because of its utility for identifying and transforming Ñplacesì and, therefore, forming part of the strategies for the local and/or regional development_. 1. Finally and from a theoretical point of view, culture is an excellent field for the implementation of Ñnew economic improvementsì in more heterodox circles than those traditionally studied, such as, non-marketable goods, the review of cases in which economic agents are supposedly rational, the economics of information and uncertainty, as well as the analysis and assessment of public institutional behaviour. Concerning the last point, we can, therefore, argue that the Economics of Culture constitutes a truly heterodox discipline due to the specific nature of its aim and numerous analyses. In what follows we are going to summarise, under four headings, the top research carried out on the field in four headings: demand, supply, markets and cultural policy_. Cultural Demand The distinguishing hallmark
of this field springs from the specificity of cultural goods and the difficulty
to unveil its demand for consumption in the market. It is worth pointing out
the following features:
3. Cultural goods are not any output, they, instead, entail a cultural experience of qualitative relevance (i.e. aesthetic emotion while listening to a concert or looking at a picture). This experience is not only influenced by wisdom and experience, but also by uncertainty and information signs, such as, experts¥ judgements on the markets of arts, cinema, etc.; or advertising and asymmetric information on the strategies for selling cultural and recreation goods. Likewise, the goods related to culture and the historical heritage have also a prestige value, associated with the interest and concern for preserving the heritage as a sign of people¥s identity and history. Hence, citizens are willing to pay a fee for this, even though they would not consume the good itself. These types of demand ñknown as demand for option, demand for existence and demand for estate ñ constitute, along with the previous point, a difficult aspect to be assessed or transformed into prices in the market. They are, indeed, part of the economics of an intangible asset: culture as Ñmeaningì. 4. With regard to the previous issue: the difficulties to unveil the demand for cultural goods, it goes without saying that the problem gets worse given the fact that these demands are generally collective ones or groups of goods. Moreover, the prices paid for them are frequently encouraged, and therefore, do not unveil the genuine degree of shortage or willingness for cultural goods_. Cultural Supply The cultural supply is as complex as diverse is the typology of potential goods and services related to it. This section will outline major problems, related to three types of cultural supply: the performing arts, the cultural heritage and the artistic production. 1. One of the most characteristic problems of the cultural supply, as regards the performing arts, is what Baumol & Bowel (1966) called Ñillness of costsì. These authors posited the idea that Ñlive showsì (opera, theatre, concerts, etc.) are abided by continuously growing costs. Thus, remuneration of the labour input grow at approximately the same rate as wages do, whereas the output of artistic performance grows at a constant pace. This can be explained by the immutable nature of, for instance, the artists¥ virtuosity, or the size of a Quarter by Mozart. In all, this is why the performing arts can only survive if the public subsidies grow nonstop. 2. As far as culture as historical heritage is concerned, the main feature lies in that it is not a fixed type of supply, inasmuch as assets and property are unique and irreproducible. They are, indeed, valueless themselves, though worthy in terms of the income generated by their derived services. This is the basic dislocation that the economics of the historical heritage encounters: whereas the demand for services is elastic, as seen above, their supply is inflexible, corresponding to that of a fixed source which has an ex post value due to the demanded services. In short, this is an economics of income rather than of prices, as would be expected of most marketable goods. 3.Finally, it is well worthwhile mentioning the cultural supply generated by artists, i.e., painters, sculptors, novelists, etc. whose occupational activity consists basically in applying their creative work to the production of commercial output, which is at the same time a cultural or artistic creation. In this context, two simultaneous problems of optimisation are posited: first, the supply of artistic works, that is, the artists¥ choices as regards recreation-work while making them compatible with budgetary shortages, i.e. the coverage of basic individual needs; second, financial decisions as regards their self-holdings, inasmuch as the cultural production (i.e. paintings) is a profitable asset in the primary, secondary and other financial markets (indeed, its profitability depends on the artists¥ work, his or her reputation or criticisms). Moreover, given the artistic prices, the problem can, indeed, be reduced to decide the quantity of works to be carried out (and consequently , the quantity of recreation), the quantity of works, entering the market and the quantity of works to be kept for posterior sale (Cf. Urrutia, 1989 & Throsby, 1994).In addition, we should include here the problem of the copyright and fraudulent uses of it, which gives rise to interesting theoretical contributions on royalties and copyright; as well as a business sector which is booming at present: the companies that manage royalties (Vid. Bautista, 1999). Cultural markets In the markets of cultural goods it is necessary to make a basic distinction between unique and reproducible goods, since their market conditions will vary according to which type they belong to. In any case, and due to the nature of the objects, the intrinsic component of their creative originality and speculation in the financial markets never disappear. This has, consequently, an indirect bearing on the formation of value for artistic works. In this sense, we will now point out some relevant features. 1. A great deal of cultural
goods, especially those belonging to the historical heritage, have a unique,
but not substitute nature. This is the reason why they have seldom been marketable
goods, but items for collecting. They, nonetheless, generate income for the
services and values related to heritage that can be demanded. Hence, and given
its status of fixed supply, the owner of the resource or the one who exploits
it can monopolise the incomes as spatial monopolies, or at least, as monopolistic
competence if there is a relatively rich heritage where different resources
compete in order to make the cultural supply more elastic.
3. Concerning the goods from cultural industries (books, discs, cinema, television, etc.), we enter the analysis of the market of reproducible works with a more ortodox nature. As mentioned above, the essence of the creative originality is never eliminated, and this is somehow mirrored in the market trends_. In this section, nonetheless, it is worth considering other economic functions growing in importance, i. e. the distribution of works, the policies of concentration and mergers between companies, the globalisation of markets, the role of new technologies in visual reproduction, etc. The study of cultural industries becomes, then, a fertile field for analysing the new industrial economy. Government intervention and cultural policy Culture is one of the fields par excellence for government intervention, as already acknowledged in various national or regional legal documents, which try to preserve the individuals¥ access to cultural goods. Yet nowadays, we attach a prominent role to the private sector, insofar as the consumption of culture depends, as a last resource, or individual preferences. Next, two strictly economic arguments for government intervention in cultural issues are outlined, as well as several criticisms to the cultural policy. Numerous cultural goods and historical heritage are considered public or semipublic goods, that is, they show problems of monopolising their consumption or production results. Consequently, they encounter problems for the optimum provision in a free market economy. This is the reason why in a plural and anonymous society, the Government is in charge caring for and giving attention to these elements to prevent, the failure of the market. This, nonetheless, does not marginalise the possibility of alternative formula for provision, such as, the corporate patronage or sponsoring, usufructs in the use of heritage, the matching of funds in the provisions, etc. 1. The investments in culture
produce numerous effects on the overall productive systems: on the one hand,
direct effects on income, employment, etc.; and on the other hand, indirect
effects on other cultural sectors (tourism, building, finances, etc.). Moreover,
the culture and cultural heritage are becoming a factor for attracting economic
and intern activities, as well as a reason for the urban restructuring and improvement
of the outside image of cities. This is why the government authorities are increasingly
considering the cultural factor within their strategies for local and regional
development.
3. Review article on the spanish economics of culture This section deals with the bibliographical review on the Spanish Economics of Culture from 1990 to nowadays; a period long enough to unveil different approaches and research on the field. As previously mentioned, this science has only recently received due attention by economists. In Spain, cultural studies have mainly been promoted by the Ministry of Culture (ÑMinisterio de Culturaì), as well as by the different regional departments (ÑConsejerÌas AutonÛmicasì) which since 1978 (date of the passing of the Spanish Constitution) are responsible for most cultural ruling. These, are, nonetheless, descriptive studies that somehow constitute a checklist of the cultural sector and its circles. Yet, they turn out to be essential for subsequent analyses. Two academic studies marked a landmark in the field: a monograph on Industry and Culture published in EconomÌa Industrial in 1989, and the X International Congress organised by the ÑAsociaciÛn Internacional sobre EconomÌa de la Culturaì and held in Barcelona in 1998. The former was the first study of this kind in Spain: though it was limited to the economic analysis of mass media (see RamÛn Zallo, etc.), it already included a reference article by Juan Urrutia on the analytical definition of the Economics of Culture as an independent academic branch. The latter represented the final consolidation of the field in the Spanish academia and, particularly, the boost for further research on it. The next bibliographical review is meant to be a very specific account: it will deal with studies published by Spanish scholars between 1990 and May 2000_. It has been compiled through the systematic review of the following sources of information: (1) Databases on Social Sciences (ISOC) from the ÑCentro Superior de Investigaciones CientÌficasì; (2) Databases on Ph Dissertations (TESEO) from the ÑConsejo de Universidadesì; (3) Databases on the Spanish National Bibliography from the ÑBiblioteca Nacionalì; (4) The Catalogue from the ÑCentro de DocumentaciÛn Cultural del Ministerio de EducaciÛn y Culturaì; (5) Proceedings of the X International Congress organised by the ÑAsociaciÛn Internacional de EconomÌa y Culturaì; and (6) The General Library from the ÑUniversidad de Valladolidì. It is, therefore, a broad, but not comprehensive review, inasmuch as there can be omissions or mistakes; there is, moreover, a less detailed review of policopied literature (labour documents and others) and the literature published by local authorities. All in all, we consider this review to be sufficiently substantial to bear witness to the Spanish research on the Economics of Culture. The article review has been divided according to five headings that are consistent with a thematic organisation of the field: (1) Theoretical insights into the economics of culture; (2) Scale of the cultural sector and analysis of the economic agents¥ behaviour; (3) Cultural industries; (4) The Market of Arts and the Historical Heritage; and (5) Cultural Policy. Each heading includes a brief description of its content. Theoretical insights into the economics of culture This section includes all the studies on the theory of economics of culture, according to the analytical bases outlined in the previous chapter. There have, likewise, been included some papers on the temporal choice of recreation-work, which accounts for the very decisions on cultural consumption; as well as other studies on royalties and copyright, which are associated with cultural creation. Ballart, J. Fullola, J.M.
& Petit, M.A. (1996) ÑEl valor del patrimonio histÛricoì,
Complutum Extra, No. 6, pages. 215-224
This section contains information on three different issues: first, papers on checklists and catalogues on relevant cultural figures, carried out by the Ministry of Culture and other regional authorities; there are, in addition, studies carried out by private sectors, such as, the Sociedad General de Autoresì; second, methodological studies for a systematic assessment of the scope of the cultural sector in terms of its territorial production, employment, income, expenditure, etc.; third and last, studies concerning the analysis of the economic agents behaviours toward culture, particularly studies on audiences and patterns of cultural consumption. AJUNTAMENT DE BARCELONA
(1990) DimensiÛ i estructura del sector cultural a Barcelona, Area de
Cultura, Ajuntament de Barcelona, Barcelona
All in all, we consider this review to be sufficiently substantial to bear witness to the Spanish research on the Economics of Culture. The article review has been divided according to five headings that are consistent with a thematic organisation of the field: (1) Theoretical insights into the economics of culture; (2) Scale of the cultural sector and analysis of the economic agents¥ behaviour; (3) Cultural industries; (4) The Market of Arts and the Historical Heritage; and (5) Cultural Policy. Each heading includes a brief description of its content. Theoretical insights into the economics of culture This section includes all the studies on the theory of economics of culture, according to the analytical bases outlined in the previous chapter. There have, likewise, been included some papers on the temporal choice of recreation-work, which accounts for the very decisions on cultural consumption; as well as other studies on royalties and copyright, which are associated with cultural creation. Ballart, J. Fullola, J.M.
& Petit, M.A. (1996) ÑEl valor del patrimonio histÛricoì,
Complutum Extra, No. 6, pages. 215-224
All in all, we consider this review to be sufficiently substantial to bear witness to the Spanish research on the Economics of Culture. The article review has been divided according to five headings that are consistent with a thematic organisation of the field: (1) Theoretical insights into the economics of culture; (2) Scale of the cultural sector and analysis of the economic agents¥ behaviour; (3) Cultural industries; (4) The Market of Arts and the Historical Heritage; and (5) Cultural Policy. Each heading includes a brief description of its content. Theoretical insights into the economics of culture This section includes all the studies on the theory of economics of culture, according to the analytical bases outlined in the previous chapter. There have, likewise, been included some papers on the temporal choice of recreation-work, which accounts for the very decisions on cultural consumption; as well as other studies on royalties and copyright, which are associated with cultural creation. Ballart, J. Fullola, J.M.
& Petit, M.A. (1996) ÑEl valor del patrimonio histÛricoì,
Complutum Extra, No. 6, pages. 215-224
This section contains information on three different issues: first, papers on checklists and catalogues on relevant cultural figures, carried out by the Ministry of Culture and other regional authorities; there are, in addition, studies carried out by private sectors, such as, the Sociedad General de Autoresì; second, methodological studies for a systematic assessment of the scope of the cultural sector in terms of its territorial production, employment, income, expenditure, etc.; third and last, studies concerning the analysis of the economic agents behaviours toward culture, particularly studies on audiences and patterns of cultural consumption. AJUNTAMENT DE BARCELONA
(1990) DimensiÛ i estructura del sector cultural a Barcelona, Area de
Cultura, Ajuntament de Barcelona, Barcelona
All in all, we consider this review to be sufficiently substantial to bear witness to the Spanish research on the Economics of Culture. The article review has been divided according to five headings that are consistent with a thematic organisation of the field: (1) Theoretical insights into the economics of culture; (2) Scale of the cultural sector and analysis of the economic agents¥ behaviour; (3) Cultural industries; (4) The Market of Arts and the Historical Heritage; and (5) Cultural Policy. Each heading includes a brief description of its content. Theoretical insights into the economics of culture This section includes all the studies on the theory of economics of culture, according to the analytical bases outlined in the previous chapter. There have, likewise, been included some papers on the temporal choice of recreation-work, which accounts for the very decisions on cultural consumption; as well as other studies on royalties and copyright, which are associated with cultural creation. Ballart, J. Fullola, J.M.
& Petit, M.A. (1996) ÑEl valor del patrimonio histÛricoì,
Complutum Extra, No. 6, pages. 215-224
This section contains information on three different issues: first, papers on checklists and catalogues on relevant cultural figures, carried out by the Ministry of Culture and other regional authorities; there are, in addition, studies carried out by private sectors, such as, the Sociedad General de Autoresì; second, methodological studies for a systematic assessment of the scope of the cultural sector in terms of its territorial production, employment, income, expenditure, etc.; third and last, studies concerning the analysis of the economic agents behaviours toward culture, particularly studies on audiences and patterns of cultural consumption. AJUNTAMENT DE BARCELONA
(1990) DimensiÛ i estructura del sector cultural a Barcelona, Area de
Cultura, Ajuntament de Barcelona, Barcelona
Cultural industries Studies on Spanish cultural industries have traditionally dealt with the production and distribution of reproducible goods (books, dics, press, and somehow, cinema); yet, there are now more and more studies of lively non-reproducible goods, such as, performing arts. It is, likewise, worth noting a sector closely linked to avant-garde technologies: the audiovisual industry and the mass media. This section could well include, as a specific industry, those activities related to cultural tourism, given their economic prominence and abundant literature; it has, nonetheless, been preferred to include them in the following section which dwells on one of the major tourist appeals: the historical heritage. AAVV (1993) ÑMercado
discogr·fico y crisis econÛmicaì, Sherzo, No. 76, pages.
115-134
The Market of Arts and Historical Heritage This section contains the studies on the cultural heritage, namely, those unique items that somehow mirror the people¥s history or artistic creativity. In this view, most Spanish studies have dealt with the building property heritage and real assets, namely, historic monuments, peculiar buildings, museums, etc. It goes without saying that these studies well dwell on problems of conservation, restoration, cultural and historic tourism, as well as on the management and profitability of heritage components. This section also draws attention to the increasing studies on the markets of arts, that is, auctions, value formation in works of art, scope of the sector, quotations, artists¥ behaviours, etc. AAVV (1997) Ciclo de reuniones
sobre Patrimonio y Sociedad. Diez anos de aplicaciÛn de la Ley del Patrimonio
HistÛrico EspaÒol, Hispania Nostra y Excma. DiputaciÛn de
Valladolid, Valladolid
Cultural Policy This last bibliographical section contains descriptive accounts on the cultural policy of different authorities, drawing attention to various cultural subsectors and industries, as well as general issues on the funding and public attention to culture. In this sense, there are remarkable studies that posit alternative formula for the public provision, such as the business patronage (sponsoring, tax exemptions, donations, etc.). Likewise, there are, now, more and more studies on jobs related to economic flows, namely, the relationship between the cultural factor and the local and regional economic development. There is, on the other hand, a lack of general studies on the assessment of cultural policies and behavioural analysis of institutions and societies related to cultural management. AAVV (1995) Mecenazgo y
conservaciÛn del patrimonio artÌstico: reflexiones sobre el caso
espaÒol, FundaciÛn Argentaria - Visor, Madrid
Cultural Policy This last bibliographical section contains descriptive accounts on the cultural policy of different authorities, drawing attention to various cultural subsectors and industries, as well as general issues on the funding and public attention to culture. In this sense, there are remarkable studies that posit alternative formula for the public provision, such as the business patronage (sponsoring, tax exemptions, donations, etc.). Likewise, there are, now, more and more studies on jobs related to economic flows, namely, the relationship between the cultural factor and the local and regional economic development. There is, on the other hand, a lack of general studies on the assessment of cultural policies and behavioural analysis of institutions and societies related to cultural management. AAVV (1995) Mecenazgo y
conservaciÛn del patrimonio artÌstico: reflexiones sobre el caso
espaÒol, FundaciÛn Argentaria - Visor, Madrid
4. Bibliography ARROYO FERNANDEZ, M.J. (1999)
ÑEmpleo y Ocioì, Revista del Instituto de Estudios EconÛmicos,
No. 3, pages. 276-287
Aknowledgement :
- For a further discussion
on the analysis of the structure and recent development in the Spanish services
sector, see Cuadrado Roura (1999) and RÌo & Moreno (1999).
1. Lets consider, for instance,
the impact of best-sellers or films represented by famous movie stars.
Wednesday April 21, 2004
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